10 mighty castles that withstood armies and 10 that were consumed by flames

Dover Castle stands where England narrows toward the continent, and it seems to have been built to remind invaders that they are visible for miles around. During the First Barons’ War, it withstood a major siege in 1216—including mining beneath its defenses—and nevertheless held out long enough to bring the campaign to an end. When a fortress can absorb the blows and continue to function, time becomes the attacker’s enemy. 

During the Hundred Years’ War, Mont-Saint-Michel withstood English attempts to conquer it, and its survival has become an integral part of its legend, rather than a mere footnote. Even today, it stands as a place that triumphs by forcing potential conquerors to battle the landscape first.

Overlooking Salzburg, Hohensalzburg resembles less a building than an answer to the question of who is in charge. During the German Peasants’ War in 1525, it was besieged but never fell to the attackers. The fortress proved, in a sense, that elevation, thick walls, and stockpiled provisions can speak a language all their own.

Pendennis Castle reminds us that resistance can be a form of victory, even when surrender eventually occurs. During the English Civil War, it held out until 1646—well after many other fortresses had fallen—and surrendered only when there was no longer any point in continuing to fight.

Harlech Castle has that austere appearance, built of Welsh stone, which gives the impression that any approach is exposed. During the War of the Roses, it withstood pressure from the Yorkists for years, becoming a symbol of stubborn resistance even as the political landscape shifted elsewhere. The longer a place holds out, the more it becomes a story that people tell, which gives it a special power.

Carlisle Castle came to understand its role as a fortified frontier stronghold in the same way one learns to bear scars—through repeated experience. In 1315, Robert Bruce’s forces attempted to capture it, but the siege failed and the Scots withdrew. Weather conditions, logistics, and the castle’s defenses all combined in the least glamorous way possible: the attackers simply could not carry out their mission.

The ancient fortress of Corfu is bathed in that Mediterranean light that conceals the violence of the conflicts that have shaken the region. During the Ottoman siege of 1716, the defenders, led by the Venetians, held their ground, and the failure to capture Corfu had repercussions far beyond the island’s coastline. A fortress that halts an empire—even if only once—deserves a permanent place in the region’s collective memory.

Fort St. Angelo and the fortified area around Birgu became a focal point during the Great Siege of Malta in 1565. The defenders endured horrific hardships yet held their ground until relief forces arrived, making the siege one of those moments that military history keeps returning to. When a place survives this kind of pressure, one begins to understand why people in the past trusted walls to secure their future.

In 1381, during the peasant revolt, a crowd forced its way inside—a rare occurrence—but the complex remained a bastion of state power rather than a conquered ruin. Its resilience stemmed less from withstanding a siege per se than from its ability to endure as a powerful symbol that no one could easily erase.

The fortress of San Leo, in Italy, is perched on a rock that resembles a natural pedestal, as if the earth itself were meant to defend it. It long withstood attacks throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods, aided by its location, which forced any assailants to navigate narrow and difficult passages. 

A castle can survive armies and yet succumb to the elements, chance, or deliberate destruction. Here are ten castles that ultimately fell.

The siege of Rochester Castle in 1215, during the First Barons’ War, is remembered for the brutality and pragmatism of medieval warfare. The attackers undermined part of the foundations and used fire to bring down a section of the structure, turning engineering into devastation. 

Built by Richard the Lionheart, Château Gaillard was intended to be a true architectural gem overlooking the Seine. It fell in 1204 to Philip II of France after a long siege during which the attackers found a way to exploit its weaknesses and maintain relentless pressure. Even a “state-of-the-art” castle can become obsolete once an enemy has studied it long enough.

Heidelberg Castle today has the romantic appearance of a ruin, but the history behind its beauty is a grim one. During the Nine Years’ War, French forces set Heidelberg ablaze in 1689, and the damage inflicted on the castle was part of a broader campaign in which destruction was the primary strategy.

Windsor Castle embodies continuity, which is why the 1992 fire was so devastating. Much of the castle was damaged, and the images of smoke rising from that familiar silhouette made people today realize, if only for a moment, the age-old truth that stone is not immortal. The reconstruction was a lesson in the fragility of heritage, even with modern firefighting capabilities.

In 1541, a major fire ravaged parts of Prague, particularly the areas around the castle complex, causing extensive damage to one of Europe’s major centers of power. The scale of this fire serves as a reminder that medieval and modern cities were, in a sense, just waiting for a spark, given their dense structures and the ubiquitous presence of flammable materials. 

The history of Osaka Castle is marked by repeated destruction—a fate that befalls any symbol constantly caught up in national upheavals. In the 17th century, lightning is said to have struck the main tower, sparking a fire that destroyed it, and subsequent eras brought further damage due to conflicts.

Azuchi Castle, associated with Oda Nobunaga, had a short and intense existence, like something brilliant meant to be seen and then swept away. After Nobunaga’s death in 1582, the castle was burned down, and its demise became part of the broader turmoil of the era. It is the kind of story that makes power seem less solid than it claims to be.

The Royal Castle in Warsaw was not lost during a medieval siege; it was the target of 20th-century violence. During World War II, it was damaged and then deliberately destroyed under German occupation, leaving it burned and in ruins as a public statement. Its subsequent reconstruction became a different kind of challenge, carried out using photographs, blueprints, and a tenacious cultural memory.

Stirling Castle is often regarded as the key to Scotland, and keys are the subject of fierce battles. In 1304, during the Scottish Wars of Independence, the forces of Edward I laid siege to Stirling with overwhelming resources, and the castle fell; the ferocity of the campaign remains etched in the annals of history. 

Not all stories of burning castles stem from medieval wars, and that is part of what makes them so unsettling. Castell Coch, in Wales—a Victorian reinterpretation of a medieval fortress—suffered a major fire in the late 20th century that damaged parts of the building.