20 Foods People Ate in the Middle Ages

The soup, which resembled a thick stew, was a staple of the medieval English diet; it was generally made from grains, legumes, vegetables, and, occasionally, meat. It could be left to simmer on the stove for several days; over time, portions were eaten and new ingredients were added, resulting in a dish that was constantly evolving. Whether you were a peasant throwing in whatever vegetables you had on hand or a wealthy lord enriching it with saffron and exotic meats, potage was the one dish enjoyed by all.

Bread and grains such as barley, oats, and rye were also among the staples of the medieval diet, while wheat (a more expensive grain reserved for the wealthy) was used to make bread, porridge, gruel, and early forms of pasta. The type of bread one ate spoke volumes about one’s social status, for the whiter and finer the bread, the wealthier one was considered to be. Bread played such a central role in daily life that, in some regions, the authorities ensured that even the poorest could afford it.

Marinated herring had been a staple food in Northern Europe since the Middle Ages, providing a way to preserve and transport the fish—which was particularly necessary during periods of abstinence from meat, such as Lent. Beginning in the 9th century, the steady spread of Christianity across Europe gave rise to a new and rapidly expanding market for canned fish, as dietary habits evolved to conform to fasting rules that required laypeople to abstain from meat for up to 150 days a year. Herring proved particularly valuable because it was abundant, inexpensive, and could be salted, smoked, or pickled to keep for months.

While the nobility drank wine and beer—with wine being the preferred choice—beer was generally served only on important festive occasions, whereas the majority of Europeans from the lower social classes consumed beverages such as ale, fruit juices, cider, and mead. It is often mistakenly believed that people drank ale only because the water was undrinkable, but the reality is more nuanced. The ales brewed at the time often had a lower alcohol content than modern beers, with an average alcohol content as low as 1 percent, and farmers and laborers frequently drank several glasses after a long day’s work, not only to quench their thirst but also to provide themselves with a source of calories.

From beef to mutton, including pork and poultry, various types of meat were consumed throughout the Middle Ages, although the nobility often indulged in more expensive and exotic dishes. Pork was one of the most “democratic” meats of the time, as pigs were relatively inexpensive to raise since they could feed on scraps, and virtually every part of the animal was used, from rendered fat for cooking to the feet thrown into a stew. Salted and dried pork products, such as bacon, were particularly common in peasant households, as they could be preserved and spread out over many meals.

During periods of fasting, protein came more from cheese, eggs, and legumes than from meat, making them an essential part of the medieval diet for much of the year. Peas, beans, and lentils were among the most reliable food sources for the working classes, and they were regularly included in soups and other simple dishes throughout the colder months. They were also easy to dry and store, making them extremely practical at a time when access to fresh food depended almost entirely on the seasons.

Studies have shown that meat and vegetable stews—such as those made with cabbage and leeks—formed the bulk of the peasantry’s diet in the Middle Ages, with dairy products also playing an important role. Turnips, parsnips, carrots, and onions were just as common; they appeared in one form or another in almost every peasant meal, as they were hardy, grew well in Northern European climates, and could be easily stored in root cellars throughout the winter. It would have been difficult to find a medieval peasant kitchen without at least a few of these vegetables.

Cheese was far more important as a food, especially for the common people, and some suggest that, during many periods, it was the main source of animal protein for the working classes. Many varieties of cheese consumed today, such as Dutch Edam, Brie from northern France, and Italian Parmesan, were already available and well known by the end of the Middle Ages. There were also whey-based cheeses, such as ricotta, made from the byproducts of hard-cheese production, and cheese was commonly used in cooking for pies and soups.

In the Middle Ages, spices were among the most sought-after and expensive commodities in Europe; the most common were black pepper, cinnamon, cumin, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves. The cost of these goods was astronomical by today’s standards: a pound of saffron cost as much as a horse, a pound of ginger as much as a sheep, and a German price list dating from 1393 indicates that a pound of nutmeg was worth seven well-fed oxen. More than 75% of the recipes in cookbooks from the 13th to the 15th centuries contain spices, and for the host, it was often more important to showcase the variety and quantity of spices on the table than the flavor they imparted to the dishes.

Frumenty, a thick wheat porridge often cooked in meat broth and seasoned with spices, was also a common dish on medieval tables. Considered a more refined version of ordinary potage, typically eaten by wealthy households, frumenty was prepared by boiling freshly cleaned wheat grains until they burst, then letting them cool before boiling them again with broth and cow’s milk or almond milk, all thickened with egg yolk and flavored with sugar and spices. While peasant soup was thin and relatively bland, frumenty was thick, rich, and unquestionably a dish reserved for those who could afford it.

The nobles savored fresh game seasoned with exotic spices imported from distant lands, thereby displaying their wealth and political power, while, in stark contrast, ordinary laborers had to make do with coarse barley bread and beans. Hunting was a privilege reserved for the nobility, and deer, wild boar, pheasant, and rabbit from the hunting estates were all considered prestigious delicacies that rarely made their way onto the tables of commoners. Indeed, poaching on the lord’s lands was a serious offense, which meant that for most peasants, game meat remained an occasional and often illicit treat rather than a regular part of their diet.

Originally, a “trencher” was a flat, round slice of stale bread used as a plate, on which food was placed to be eaten; at the end of the meal, this slice, soaked in sauce, could be eaten or given as alms to the poor. By the 14th century, trenchers had also evolved into square or circular wooden plates, usually featuring a small indentation for salt along the rim. This may seem like an unusual concept today, but the bread trencher was a practical and virtually waste-free solution at a time when ceramic plates were expensive and food was never taken for granted.

Throughout the Middle Ages, almonds were highly prized as a thickening agent in soups, stews, and sauces, particularly in the form of almond milk. Almond milk proved particularly useful during periods of fasting, when the consumption of dairy products was restricted, and it allowed cooks in wealthy households to replicate the richness of cream or cow’s milk without technically violating Church rules. It was considered a refined and somewhat prestigious ingredient, and one was far more likely to find it in a nobleman’s kitchen than in a peasant’s pot.

In the Middle Ages, eggs were among the most accessible and versatile foods for all social classes; they were found in all kinds of dishes, from thick soups to baked pies and stuffed dishes. During periods of fasting when meat consumption was restricted, protein came primarily from eggs, cheese, and legumes, making eggs a surprisingly important staple for much of the year. Even a poor peasant household was likely to raise a few chickens, which meant that eggs were one of the few animal-based foods that required neither great wealth nor a successful day of hunting to be put on the table.

Wine was the beverage of choice for the medieval nobility and clergy, and its quality and origin were considered a direct reflection of the host’s wealth and social status. Spiced or mulled wine was not only popular among the wealthy, but it was also considered particularly healthy by physicians, who believed that wine acted as a vehicle, carrying nutrients from other foods to all parts of the body. Spiced wines were generally prepared by mixing ordinary red wine with various ingredients such as ginger, cardamom, pepper, grains of paradise, nutmeg, cloves, and sugar.

Before sugar became widespread, honey was the primary sweetener in medieval cuisine; it was used to sweeten everything from beverages and desserts to savory sauces and medicinal preparations. It also had significant preservative properties and was used in the fermentation of mead, one of the most widely consumed alcoholic beverages in the early Middle Ages. Honey’s value extended far beyond the kitchen, as it played an important role in medicine and was considered one of the few truly sweet luxury items that even moderately well-off households could afford without having to bear the exorbitant cost of imported cane sugar.

Medieval cuisine among the wealthy was characterized by a range of spicy flavors, combined with sweet-and-sour and sweet-and-savory pairings. Sauces were often thickened with breadcrumbs and enhanced with a touch of sweetness, such as sugar or dried fruits like currants and raisins. Almonds, walnuts, and chestnuts also played an important role in medieval cuisine, with almonds in particular being a costly but widely used ingredient in the kitchens of wealthy households. Dried fruits such as dates, figs, and prunes made their way onto European tables via trade routes and were prized both for their sweetness and their ability to withstand long journeys without spoiling.

Seasonal fruits, such as apples and pears, were commonly available, but people in the Middle Ages did not have the luxury of refrigeration, which meant that foods that spoiled quickly had to be eaten immediately, or they would go to waste. A well-planned medieval meal ideally began with easily digestible fruits, such as apples, because it was believed that starting the meal with lighter foods made the digestion of heavier dishes more efficient. Berries, cherries, plums, and quinces were also widely consumed in season, and many were preserved by drying or made into thick fruit pastes that could be stored and eaten during the winter months.

Butter was the predominant fat in regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle raising during the second half of the Middle Ages, particularly in the Netherlands and southern Scandinavia, while most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats. Lard, made from pork fat, was particularly widespread in peasant cuisine because it was inexpensive, flavorful, and a natural byproduct of the pig slaughter in which most households participated each fall. These cooking fats were not merely culinary ingredients; they also served as high-calorie sources of energy in a world where access to sufficient food to sustain intense physical labor was never guaranteed.

Pies filled with meat, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were turnovers, fritters, round doughnuts, and many similar pastries; by the end of the Middle Ages, cookies—and especially wafers—eaten as dessert had become prestigious delicacies, available in many varieties. The thick crusts used in medieval pies, often called “coffins,” were designed less to be eaten than to serve as baking and serving vessels, even though the filling inside was, of course, the main attraction. Dishes served at noble banquets were often heavily spiced to demonstrate wealth to guests, and a tart served at a grand feast in the great hall would undoubtedly have featured an impressive assortment of imported spices incorporated into the filling.